ancient history

Topic No. 1:History of Ancient Egypt

PRE-DYNASTIC PERIOD (5000-3100 B.C)

Few written records or artifactshave been found from the Pre-dynastic Period, which encompassed at least 2,000years of gradual development of the Egyptian civilization.

Neolithic (lateStone Age) communities in northeastern Africa exchanged hunting for agricultureand made early advances that paved the way for the later development ofEgyptian arts and crafts, technology, politics and religion (including a greatreverence for the dead and possibly a belief in life after death)

Did You Know? That the belief in theAfterlife first emerged in ancient Egypt before it emerged in Abrahamicreligion such as Christianity, Islam and Judaism

ARCHAIC (EARLY DYNASTIC) PERIOD(3100-2686 B.C)

KingMenes founded the capital of ancient Egypt at White Walls (later known asMemphis) in the north, near the apex of the Nile River delta. The capital wouldgrow into a great metropolis that dominated Egyptian society during the OldKingdom period. The Archaic Period saw the development of the foundations ofEgyptian society, including the all-important ideology of kingship. To theancient Egyptians, the king was a godlike being, closely identified with theall-powerful god Horus. The earliest known hieroglyphic writing also dates tothis period.

Did You Know? That the Ancient EgyptianHieroglyphics was not understood until 1766 when French scholar named JeanFrancois Champollion deciphered the Rosetta stone that provided the key to decipheringAncient Egyptian Language

Inthe Archaic Period, as in all other periods, most ancient Egyptians werefarmers living in small villages, and agriculture (largely wheat and barley)formed the economic base of the Egyptian state. The annual flooding of thegreat Nile River provided the necessary irrigation and fertilization each year;farmers sowed the wheat after the flooding receded and harvested it before theseason of high temperatures and drought returned.

Did You Know? That since ancient times the NileRiver was called �Gift of the Nile� Because it provided the necessary and theonly source of irrigation for farming

Did You Know? That the annual flooding ofthe Nile River lasted until 1970, due to the building of Aswan Dam to providehydroelectric power and to control the water supply

OLD KINGDOM:AGE OF THE PYRAMID BUILDERS (2686-2181 B.C)

TheOld Kingdom began with the third dynasty of pharaohs. Around 2630 B.C., thethird dynasty�s King Djoser asked Imhotep, an architect, priest and healer, todesign a funerary monument for him; the result was the world�s first majorstone building, the Step-Pyramid at Saqqara, near Memphis.

Did You Know? That theworkers and craftsmen who were hired to build the tombs and pyramids ofpharaohs in ancient Egypt had access to many health-care benefits and there aremany parallels to the health care system of ancient Egypt and the modern world.According to archaeologist Anne Austin who was exploring the remains of anancient Egyptian village, there was evidence of the residents being thebeneficiaries of what she calls �the world�s first documented health-careplan�. The workmen were well-provided for and there is evidence to suggest thatthey would take time off to care for their wives and daughters when they weremenstruating

Pyramid-buildingreached its zenith with the construction of the Great Pyramid at Giza, on theoutskirts of Cairo. Built for Khufu (or Cheops, in Greek), who ruled from 2589to 2566 B.C., the pyramid was later named by classical historians as one of theancient world�s Seven Wonders. Two other pyramids were built at Giza forKhufu�s successors Khafra (2558-2532 B.C) and Menkaura (2532-2503 B.C.)

Did You Know? That the Pyramid of Giza wasone of The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World that is actually ever found

Duringthe third and fourth dynasties, Egypt enjoyed a golden age of peace andprosperity. The pharaohs held absolute power and provided a stable centralgovernment; the kingdom faced no serious threats from abroad; and successfulmilitary campaigns in foreign countries like Nubia and Libya added to itsconsiderable economic prosperity. Over the course of the fifth and sixthdynasties, the king�s wealth was steadily depleted, partially due to the hugeexpense of pyramid-building, and his absolute power faltered in the face of thegrowing influence of the nobility and the priesthood that grew up around thesun god Ra (Re). After the death of the sixth dynasty�s King Pepy II, who ruledfor some 94 years, the Old Kingdom period ended in chaos.

Did You Know? There weremany ranks and specializations in the field of medicine in ancient Egypt.Dating as far back as 27th century BC, there are records of a physician namedHesy-Ra who was the �Chief of Dentists and Physicians� to King Djoser and ladyPeseshet, who was called the �Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians�. There werealso ophthalmologists, gastroenterologists, proctologists, dentists, �doctorwho supervises butchers� and an unspecified �inspector of liquids�. The ancientEgyptian term for a proctologist was �neru phuyt� which literally meant�shepherd of the anus�. During the 1st Dynasty, the Egyptians also establishedinstitutions called Houses of Life, which might have served medical purposeslike hospitals

FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD(2181-2055 B.C)

Onthe heels of the Old Kingdom�s collapse, the seventh and eighth dynastiesconsisted of a rapid succession of Memphis-based rulers until about 2160 B.C.,when the central authority completely dissolved, leading to civil war betweenprovincial governors. This chaotic situation was intensified by Bedouininvasions and accompanied by famine and disease.

From this era ofconflict emerged two different kingdoms: A line of 17 rulers (dynasties nineand 10) based in Heracleopolis ruled Middle Egypt between Memphis and Thebes,while another family of rulers arose in Thebes to challenge Heracleopolitanpower. Around 2055 B.C., the Theban prince Mentuhotep managed to toppleHeracleopolis and reunited Egypt, beginning the 11th dynasty and ending theFirst Intermediate Period.

MIDDLE KINGDOM: 12TH DYNASTY(2055-1786 B.C)

Afterthe last ruler of the 11th dynasty, Mentuhotep IV, was assassinated, the thronepassed to his vizier, or chief minister, who became King Amenemhet I, founderof dynasty 12. A new capital was established at It-towy, south of Memphis,while Thebes remained a great religious center. During the Middle Kingdom,Egypt once again flourished, as it had during the Old Kingdom. The 12th dynastykings ensured the smooth succession of their line by making each successorco-regent, a custom that began with Amenemhet I.

Middle-KingdomEgypt pursued an aggressive foreign policy, colonizing Nubia (with its richsupply of gold, ebony, ivory and other resources) and repelling the Bedouinswho had infiltrated Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. The kingdomalso built diplomatic and trade relations with Syria, Palestine and othercountries; undertook building projects including military fortresses and miningquarries; and returned to pyramid-building in the tradition of the Old Kingdom.The Middle Kingdom reached its peak under Amenemhet III (1842-1797 B.C.); itsdecline began under Amenenhet IV (1798-1790 B.C.) and continued under his sisterand regent, Queen Sobekneferu (1789-1786 B.C.), who was the first confirmedfemale ruler of Egypt and the last ruler of the 12th dynasty.

Did You Know? That Dwarfenjoyed a significantly elevated social standing in Egypt and were treated withimmense respect. They weren�t shunned because of their short stature and werewelcomed as a proper member into the family. They were thought to possessdivine gifts and were employed as jewelers, cup-bearers for the nobility,tailors and entertainers, and even held official positions. The Egyptians hadseveral dwarf gods such as Bes, the god of dreams, luck and dancing, and Ptah,the god of arts, crafts and creativity. The dwarves were never depicted in acomic way and received lavish funerals

SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD(1786-1567 B.C)

 The13th dynasty marked the beginning of another unsettled period in Egyptianhistory, during which a rapid succession of kings failed to consolidate power.As a consequence, during the Second Intermediate Period Egypt was divided intoseveral spheres of influence. The official royal court and seat of governmentwas relocated to Thebes, while a rival dynasty (the 14th), centered on the cityof Xois in the Nile delta, and seems to have existed at the same time as the13th

Around1650 B.C., a line of foreign rulers known as the Hyksos took advantage ofEgypt�s instability to take control. The Hyksos rulers of the 15th dynastyadopted and continued many of the existing Egyptian traditions in government aswell as culture. They ruled concurrently with the line of native Theban rulersof the 17th dynasty, who retained control over most of southern Egypt despitehaving to pay taxes to the Hyksos. (The 16th dynasty is variously believed tobe Theban or Hyksos rulers.) Conflict eventually flared between the two groups,and the Thebans launched a war against the Hyksos around 1570 B.C., drivingthem out of Egypt.

NEW KINGDOM (1567-1085 B.C)

UnderAhmose I, the first king of the 18th dynasty, Egypt was once again reunited.During the 18th dynasty, Egypt restored its control over Nubia and beganmilitary campaigns in Palestine, clashing with other powers in the area such asthe Mitannians and the Hittites. The country went on to establish the world�sfirst great empire, stretching from Nubia to the Euphrates River in Asia. Inaddition to powerful kings such as Amenhotep I (1546-1526 B.C.), Thutmose I(1525-1512 B.C.) and Amenhotep III (1417-1379 B.C.), the New Kingdom wasnotable for the role of royal women such as Queen Hatshepsut (1503-1482B.C.), who began ruling as a regent for her young stepson (he later becameThutmose III, Egypt�s greatest military hero), but rose to wield all the powersof a pharaoh.

Thecontroversial Amenhotep IV (c. 1379-1362), of the late 18th dynasty, undertooka religious revolution, disbanding the priesthoods dedicated to Amon-Re (acombination of the local Theban god Amon and the sun god Re) and forcing theexclusive worship of another sun-god, Aton. Renaming himself Akhenaton(�servant of the Aton�), he built a new capital in Middle Egypt calledAkhetaton, known later as Amarna. Upon Akhenaton�s death, the capital returnedto Thebes and Egyptians returned to worshiping a multitude of gods.

Did You Know? That the pharaoh Akhenaton isfirst to impose a Monotheistic belief In the Egyptian religion in which it wasadopted by other religions

Did You Know? That during the rule of Akhenaton, his wifeNefertiti played an important political and religious role in the monotheisticcult of the sun god Aton. Images and sculptures of Nefertiti depict her famousbeauty and role as a living goddess of fertility

The19th and 20th dynasties, known as the Ramesside period (for the line of kingsnamed Ramses) saw the restoration of the weakened Egyptian empire and animpressive amount of building, including great temples and cities. According tobiblical chronology, the Exodus of Moses and the Israelites from Egypt possiblyoccurred during the reign of Ramses II (1304-1237 B.C.).

Allof the New Kingdom rulers (with the exception of Akhenaton) were laid to restin deep, rock-cut tombs (not pyramids) in the Valley of the Kings, a burialsite on the west bank of the Nile opposite Thebes. Most of them were raided anddestroyed, with the exception of the tomb and treasure of Tutankhamen (c.1361-1352B.C.), discovered largely intact in A.D. 1922.

Did You Know? That King Tut was famous onlyfamous because he came into power on a young age but on how his body waspreserved that resulted a dark and burnt texture to his body that differs fromother mummies; the tomb were He rest is unfinished and on how his treasury was placed

 The splendid mortuary temple of the last greatking of the 20th dynasty, Ramses III (c. 1187-1156 B.C.), was also relativelywell preserved, and indicated the prosperity Egypt still enjoyed during hisreign. The kings who followed Ramses III were less successful: Egypt lost itsprovinces in Palestine and Syria for good and suffered from foreign invasions(notably by the Libyans), while its wealth was being steadily but inevitablydepleted.

THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD(1085-664 B.C)

Thenext 400 years known as the Third Intermediate Period saw important changes inEgyptian politics, society and culture. Centralized government under the 21stdynasty pharaohs gave way to the resurgence of local officials, whileforeigners from Libya and Nubia grabbed power for themselves and left a lastingimprint on Egypt�s population. The 22nd dynasty began around 945 B.C. with KingSheshonq, a descendant of Libyans who had invaded Egypt during the late 20thdynasty and settled there. Many local rulers were virtually autonomous duringthis period and dynasties 23-24 are poorly documented.

Inthe eighth century B.C., Nubian pharaohs beginning with Shabako, ruler of theNubian kingdom of Kush, established their own dynasty�the 25th�at Thebes. UnderKushite rule, Egypt clashed with the growing Assyrian empire. In 671 B.C., theAssyrian ruler Esarhaddon drove the Kushite king Taharka out of Memphis anddestroyed the city; he then appointed his own rulers out of local governors andofficials loyal to the Assyrians. One of them, Necho of Sais, ruled briefly asthe first king of the 26th dynasty before being killed by the Kushite leaderTanuatamun, in a final, unsuccessful grab for power.

FROM THE LATE PERIOD TOALEXANDERs� CONQUEST (664-332 B.C)

Beginningwith Necho�s son, Psammetichus, the Saite dynasty ruled a reunified Egypt forless than two centuries. In 525 B.C., Cambyses, king of Persia, defeatedPsammetichus III, the last Saite king, at the Battle of Pelusium, and Egyptbecame part of the Persian Empire. Persian rulers such as Darius (522-485 B.C.)ruled the country largely under the same terms as native Egyptian kings: Dariussupported Egypt�s religious cults and undertook the building and restoration ofits temples. The tyrannical rule of Xerxes (486-465 B.C.) sparked increaseduprisings under him and his successors. One of these rebellions triumphed in404 B.C., beginning one last period of Egyptian independence under nativerulers (dynasties 28-30).

Inthe mid-fourth century B.C., the Persians again attacked Egypt, reviving theirempire under Ataxerxes III in 343 B.C. Barely a decade later, in 332 B.C., Alexander theGreat of Macedonia defeated the armiesof the Persian Empire and conquered Egypt. After Alexander�s death, Egypt wasruled by a line of Macedonian kings, beginning with Alexander�s general Ptolemyand continuing with his descendants. The last ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt�thelegendary Cleopatra VII�surrenderedEgypt to the armies of Octavian (later Augustus) in31 B.C. Six centuries of Roman rule followed, during which Christianity becamethe official religion of Rome and its provinces (including Egypt). The conquestof Egypt by the Arabs in the seventh century A.D. and the introduction of Islamwould do away with the last outward aspects of ancient Egyptian culture andpropel the country towards its modern incarnation.

Topic No. 2:Aztecs 

EARLY AZTEC HISTORY

Theexact origins of the Aztec people are uncertain, but they are believed to havebegun as a northern tribe of hunter-gatherers whose name came from that oftheir homeland, Aztlan (or �White Land�). The Aztecs were also known as theTenochca (from which the name for their capital city, Tenochtitlan, wasderived) or the Mexica (the origin of the name of the city that would replaceTenochtitlan, as well as the name for the entire country). The Aztecs appearedin Mesoamerica�as the south-central region of pre-Columbian Mexico isknown�in the early 13th century. Their arrival came just after, or perhapshelped bring about, the fall of the previously dominant Mesoamericancivilization, the Toltecs.

Did You Know? The Aztec language, Nahuatl, was thedominant language in central Mexico by the mid-1350s. Numerous Nahuatl wordsborrowed by the Spanish were later absorbed into English as well, includingchile or chili, avocado, chocolate, coyote, peyote, guacamole, ocelot andmescal

Whenthe Aztecs saw an eagle perched on a cactus on the marshy land near thesouthwest border of Lake Texcoco, they took it as a sign to build theirsettlement there. They drained the swampy land, constructed artificial islandson which they could plant gardens and established the foundations of theircapital city, Tenochtitl�n, in 1325 A.D. Typical Aztec crops included maize(corn), along with beans, squashes, potatoes, tomatoes and avocadoes; they alsosupported themselves through fishing and hunting local animals such as rabbits,armadillos, snakes, coyotes and wild turkey. Their relatively sophisticatedsystem of agriculture (including intensive cultivation of land and irrigationmethods) and a powerful military tradition would enable the Aztecs to build asuccessful state, and later an empire.

THE AZTEC EMPIRE

In1428, under their leader Itzcoatl, the Aztecs formed a three-way alliance withthe Texcocans and the Tacubans to defeat their most powerful rivals forinfluence in the region, the Tepanec, and conquer their capital ofAzcapotzalco. Itzcoatl�s successor Montezuma (Moctezuma) I, who took power in1440, was a great warrior who was remembered as the father of the Aztec empire.By the early 16th century, the Aztecs had come to rule over up to 500 smallstates, and some 5 to 6 million people, either by conquest or commerce.Tenochtitl�n at its height had more than 140,000 inhabitants, and was the mostdensely populated city ever to exist in Mesoamerica.

Did You Know? That theAztec sword known as �macuahuitl� was a wooden sword with obsidian blades andused as the standard close combat weapon, Obsidian is a hard glass-like rockformed when the lava from a volcano solidifies rapidly before it couldcrystallize. The swords were made for either one-handed or two-handed grip,with the two-handed one being �as tall as a man�. The obsidian blades werediscontinuously arranged with gaps along the side or sometimes they were setclose together forming a single edge. According to the Spanish conquistadors,the weapon was so cleverly built that the blades could neither be pulled out orcould they be broken

Bustlingmarkets such as Tenochtitlan�s Tlatelolco, visited by some 50,000 people onmajor market days, drove the Aztec economy. The Aztec civilization was alsohighly developed socially, intellectually and artistically. It was a highlystructured society with a strict caste system; at the top were nobles, while atthe bottom were serfs, indentured servants and slaves. The Aztec faith shared manyaspects with other Mesoamerican religions, like that of the Maya,notably including the rite of human sacrifice. In the great cities of the Aztecempire, magnificent temples, palaces, plazas and statues embodied thecivilization�s unfailing devotion to the many Aztec gods, includingHuitzilopochtli (god of war and of the sun) and Quetzalcoatl (�FeatheredSerpent�), a Toltec god who served many important roles in the Aztec faith overthe years.

TheAztec calendar, common in much of Mesoamerica, was based on a solar cycle of365 days and a ritual cycle of 260 days; the calendar played a central role inthe religion and rituals of Aztec society.

EUROPEAN INVASION & FALL OF THE AZTEC CIVILIZATION

Thefirst European to visit Mexican territory was Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba,who arrived in Yucatan from Cuba with three ships and about 100 men in early1517. Cordobars reports on his return to Cuba prompted the Spanish governorthere, Diego Velasquez, to send a larger force back to Mexico under the commandof Hernan Cortes. InMarch 1519, Cortes landed at the town of Tabasco,where he learned from the natives of the great Aztec civilization, then ruledby Moctezuma (or Montezuma) II. Defying the authority of Velasquez, Cortesfounded the city of Veracruz onthe southeastern Mexican coast, where he trained his army into a disciplinedfighting force. Cortes and some 400 soldiers then marched into Mexico, aided bya native woman known as Malinche, who served as a translator.

Thanksto instability within the Aztec empire, Cortes was able to form alliances withother native peoples, notably the Tlascalans, who were then at war withMontezuma.

InNovember 1519, Cortes and his men arrived in Tenochtitlan, where Montezuma andhis people greeted them as honored guests according to Aztec custom (partiallydue to Cortes� physical resemblance to the light-skinned Quetzalcoatl, whosereturn was prophesied in Aztec legend). Though the Aztecs had superior numbers,their weapons were inferior, and Cortes was able to immediately take Montezumaand his entourage of lords� hostage, gaining control of Tenochtitla. TheSpaniards then murdered thousands of Aztec nobles during a ritual danceceremony, and Montezuma died under uncertain circumstances while in custody.Cuauhtemoc, his young nephew, took over as emperor, and the Aztecs drove theSpaniards from the city. With the help of the Aztecs� native rivals, Cortesmounted an offensive against Tenochtitlan, finally defeating Cuauhtemoc�sresistance on August 13, 1521. In all, some 240,000 people were believed tohave died in the city�s conquest, which effectively ended the Azteccivilization. After his victory, Cortes razed Tenochtitla and built Mexico Cityon its ruins; it quickly became the premier European center in the New World.